 |
|
Treason in English Law and US History
Two grades of treason ______ in early English law: high treason, which was directed ______ the Crown, and petty treason, which consisted of a ______ against a subject, such as a wife killing her husband, or a servant murdering his master.
In early English ______ the most serious offences were compassing or imagining the death of the ______, adhering to the sovereign’s enemies and giving them aid and comfort, and levying war against the sovereign. ______ were changed from time to time between the reign of Edward III and that of Elizabeth I. After the Restoration the Stuart judges used “constructive treason” ______resistance to the Crown. They extended the offences to include ______ as well as deeds. In 1663, a writer was convicted of treason for ______ an article suggesting that the king was accountable to the people.
Treason – criminal offense involving the attempt, by open acts, to overthrow the government to which the offender owes allegiance, or to betray the state to a foreign power. The first Americans convicted and ______ for treason in peacetime were the engineer Julius Rosenberg (1918-53) and his wife Ethel Rosenberg (1915-53). They, both the members of the ______ party, were found guilty in 1951 of transmitting atomic _______ secrets to a Soviet spy. After several appeals to the U.S. Supreme Court and and a refusal of clemency by President Eisenhower, the Rosenbergs were executed at Sing Sing Prison in Ossining, N.Y.
Exercise 4. Work in pairs and discuss the following questions:
1. What is treason?
2. What grades of treason in early English law do you know?
3. What were the most serious offences in early English statutes?
Exercise 5. Translate from Russian into English:
1. Отсутствие уголовного кодекса – историческая особенность Англии.
2. В Великобритании источниками уголовного права являются статуты и судебные прецеденты.
3. Уголовное право трактует понятие «уголовное преступление» как деяние, которое угрожает безопасности государства, а также жизни и здоровью граждан.
4. Определение многих уголовных преступлений в Британии зависит только от решения судей.
5. Полиция, уголовные суды и тюрьмы – государственные организации, которые работают в системе уголовного права.
6. В определенных обстоятельствах гражданин может объявить себя невиновным.
7. Презумпция невиновности – важный принцип, действующий в интересах прав и свобод человека и гражданина.
8. Презумпция невиновности – один из основных принципов правосудия во многих европейских странах.
9. Принцип презумпции невиновности закреплен в основных документах Совета Европы.
10. Государственная измена является самым серьезным уголовным преступлением в Великобритании и США.
TOPIC 16: COMMON LAW
Exercise 1. Before reading the text explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
case law, precedent, decision of the court, common law system, judicial decision, statute, unwritten law, case-by-case decision, general customs, to define the law
Common law
Common law or case law refers to unwritten law system in Great Britain which is generally derived from cases decided by courts and not from a statute. Common law has been administered in the courts of England since the Middle Ages; it is also found in Canada, the US and in most of the British Commonwealth.
The common law is based on the principle of deciding cases by reference to previous judicial decisions, rather than written statutes drafted by legislative bodies. The main principle of that system is to consider unfair to treat similar facts differently on different occasions. General rules or precedents are guidelines for judges deciding similar cases.
Common law system can be contrasted to the civil-law system, based on ancient Roman law, found in continental Europe. Civil-law judges decide cases by referring to statutory principles, common-law judges focus on the facts of specific case and similar previous cases. These case-by-case decisions are used again and again in similar cases and become customary, or common to all people living under the authority of the court of law. However, sometimes judges may reveal new and different facts, such as changing social or technological conditions. A common-law judge is then free to depart from precedent and establish a new rule or decision, which sets a new precedent and will be used by judges in other cases. So, judges continue to shape and guide the future development of English law, drawing on the flexibility of principles of common law tradition.
New words:
- to be administered — совершаться, отправляться (о правосудии);
- British Commonwealth — Британское Содружество Наций;
- by reference — относительно, касательно;
- to consider unfair — считать несправедливым;
- occasion — случай, событие;
- guideline — ведущий принцип;
- to focus — сосредоточиться;
- customary — традиционный;
- to reveal new facts — обнаруживать новые факты;
- flexibility — гибкость;
Questions to the text:
1. What does the term common law refer to?
2. In what countries does common law prevail?
3. What is the main principle of common law system?
4. How can common law be contrasted to the civil-law system?
5. What is the difference in resolving disputes between common-law and civil-law judges?
6. What is a precedent?
7. Can a judge depart from a precedent?
8. When can a judge depart from the precedent?
9. Who can shape and guide the development of common law?
10. Is there a system of judicial precedent in Russia?
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. Civil law system was developed by judges through decisions of court.
2. The body of precedent is called “common law”.
3. Common law arises from the traditional authority of courts to define what law is.
4. As a general term common law may express the general customs of English law which refer to early laws, unwritten in form but administered by the common law courts.
5. The common law is the basis of legal system in Great Britain and the USA.
6. The Common law used in the USA originated in England and was compiled in the 18th century by Sir William Blackstone in his works.
7. The distinctive feature of common law is to represent law as expressed in judicial decisions.
8. The grounds for deciding common-law cases are found in precedents provided by past decisions contrasted to civil law.
9. Systems of common law and civil law differ in how law is created and how it can be changed.
10. Common law judges can influence and shape the development of English law.
Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with words given below, translate the text into Russian: highest-ranking, evidence, process, decision, legislation, court, judgment, judge, experience, disputes
Common Law System
The common-law system allows judges to look to other jurisdictions or to draw upon past or present judicial ______ for analogies to help in making ______. This flexibility allows common law to deal with changes that lead to unanticipated controversies. At the same time, common law ______ is provided by certainty, uniformity, and predictability.
Under a common-law system ______ are settled through an exchange of arguments and ______. Both parties present their cases before a neutral fact finder, either a judge or a jury. The ______ or jury evaluates the evidence, applies the appropriate law to the facts, and renders a ______ in favor of one of the parties. Following the decision, either party may appeal the decision to a higher ______. Appellate courts in a common-law system may review only findings of law, not determinations of fact.
Under a common-law system, all citizens, including the ______ officials of the government, are the subject to the same set of laws, and the exercise of government power is limited by those laws. The judiciary may review ______, but only to determine whether it conforms to constitutional requirements.
Exercise 4. Work in pairs and discuss the following questions:
1. What does a common-law system allow to judges?
2. How are disputes settled under a common-law system?
3. What is the role of appellate courts in a common-law system?
Exercise 5. Translate from Russian into English:
1. Общее право основано на принципе возможности решать дело, ссылаясь на предыдущие судебные решения.
2. Система общего права отличается от системы гражданского права, где судьи при решении дела опираются на законы, составленные законодательными органами.
3. Принцип судебного прецедента является главенствующим в системе общего права.
4. Система общего права распространена в Британии, Канаде, США и других странах Британского Содружества Наций.
5. Иногда судьи общего права могут отклониться от прецедента и установить новую правовую норму.
6. Судьи общего права имеют огромное влияние на формирование новых правовых норм в условиях социальных и технологических изменений в обществе.
7. Чтобы добиться честного и справедливого результата для сторон судьи общего права внимательно рассматривают обстоятельства дела.
8. Во время судебного процесса в системе общего права обе стороны представляют факты перед судьей или присяжными.
9. После вынесения судебного решения любая сторона может апеллировать в суд высшей инстанции.
10. Согласно системе общего права все граждане, включая высокопоставленных чиновников, равны перед законом.
TOPIC 17: INTERNATIONAL LAW
Exercise 1. Before reading the text explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
nation, relations between states, international organization, citizens, matters of law, concept of law, obligation, convention, agreement, legal obligation, international community
International law
Traditionally, International Law includes rules and principles regulating relations between states and individuals, and relations between international organizations. There are two types of International Law: Public and Private.
Public international law deals with questions of rights between several nations or nations and the citizens or subjects of other nations. In contrast, Private international law deals with arguments between private persons, natural or juridical, arising out of situations having significant relationship to more than one nation. In recent years the line between public and private international law is uncertain. Issues of private international law may implicate issues of public international law.
International Law includes the basic, classic concepts of law in national legal systems – status, property, obligation and tort. It also includes substantive law, procedure, process and remedies. The following are major substantive fields of International Law: International Economic Law; International Security Law; International Criminal Law; International Environmental Law; Diplomatic Law; International Humanitarian Law or Law of War; International Human Rights Law.
Traditionally, states were the main subject of international law. Individuals and non-state international organizations have also become subject to international regulation.
International law imposes upon the nations certain duties with respect to individuals. However, in the absence of a specific agreement an individual can not bring the complaint. Only the state of which he is a citizen can complain of such a violation before an international tribunal.
New words:
- uncertain — неопределенный;
- to implicate — вовлекать;
- status — гражданское состояние;
- property — право собственности;
- obligation — обязательство;
- tort — гражданское правонарушение;
- substantive law — материальное право;
- remedies — средства судебной защиты;
- to impose — возлагать;
- International Security Law — право международной безопасности;
- International Humanitarian Law — международное гуманитарное право.
Questions to the text:
1. What does International Law include?
2. What are two types of International Law?
3. What does Public international law deal with?
4. What is the subject of Private international law?
5. Is there a great difference between these types of international law?
6. What are the basic concepts of international law in national legal systems?
7. Can you name the major fields of international law?
8. What was the main subject of international law traditionally?
9. What duties does international law impose upon the nations?
10. Can an individual bring a complaint before an international tribunal?
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. The most common kinds of law are the International Law, Civil Law, Criminal Law, Tort Law, Labor Law and many others.
2. International Law concerns the relations and dealings of nations with each other.
3. Recently, the subject of international law has been redefined to include relations between states and individuals and relations between international organizations.
4. Public international law concerns the questions of rights between several nations.
5. Private international law concerns the questions of controversies between private persons, arising out of situations relating to more than one nation.
6. International Law includes the basic concepts of law in national legal systems, such as status, property and tort.
7. International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law are the major fields of International Law.
8. Traditionally the main subject of International Law was states.
9. Now individuals and non-state organizations are also the subject of International Law.
10. Only states can bring the complaint before an international tribunal in the system of International Law.
Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with the words given below, translate the text into Russian: situations, form, follow, obligations, rules, principle, legal, international