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Text 1. Thermodynamics. How it started
In physics energy is often defined as the ability to do work or generate heat. The word ‘energy’ derives from Greek energeia, which appears for the first time in the work “Nicomachean Ethics” of Aristotle in the 4th century BC1. In 1021 AD2, the Arabian physicist, Alhazen, in “The Book of Optics”, defined light rays as streams of minute energy particles, stating that ‘the smallest parts of light’ retain ‘only properties that can be treated by geometry and verified by experiment’ and that ‘they lack all sensible qualities except energy’. In 1121, Al-Khazini, in “The Book of the Balance of Wisdom”, proposed that the gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth.
The concept of energy emerged out of the idea of ‘vis viva’, which Leibniz defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total ‘vis viva’ was conserved. Leibniz claimed that heat consists of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter. This point of view was shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until it was generally accepted. In 1807, Thomas Young was the first to use the term ‘energy’ instead of ‘vis viva’, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described ‘kinetic energy’ in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term ‘potential energy’. It was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the caloric) or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. James Prescott Joule, who lived in the 19th century, discovered that heat is a type of energy. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) amalgamated all of these laws into the laws of thermodynamics. The laws are based on the idea of conservation of energy; it states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is numerical quantity, which does not change when something happens.
There are several different forms of energy, kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound energy, light energy, elastic, electromagnetic, chemical and nuclear. While one form of energy may be transformed to another, the total energy remains the same. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. According to Noether’s theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time.
Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the earth.
1BC - до нашої ери
2AD - нашої ери
Exercise 3. Identify by suffixes: a) nouns, b) adjectives, c) adverbs among the following words. Translate them.
Physicist, property, individual, directly, general, energy, potential, generally, distance, velocity, nature, various, special, permanently, century, naturally, substance, quantity, description, functional, permanent, complicated, performance.
Exercise 4. Write the verbs related to the following nouns and translate the pairs.
Definition, preparation, instruction, treatment, verification, experiment, proposal, variety, dependence, conservation, motion, explanation, relation, requirement, combination, description, application.
Exercise 5. Among the following words select those which can be used both as nouns and verbs.
Change, experiment, design, direction, test, control, description, use, product, coin, conservation, aid, plan, view, function, state, postulate, isolation, seat, transformation, place, cause, light, movement.
Exercise 6. Translate the following attributive word combinations.
Light ray, stream of particles, energy properties, chemical process, natural phenomena, energy conservation, sound energy, light energy, isolated system, seated passenger, moving airplane, man-made change, energy-emitting source, achieved results, nuclear energy, final form, heat ray, rapid development.
Exercise 7. Give the corresponding adverbs and translate the pairs.
Significant, recent, enormous, rapid, relative, final, practical, good, fast, general, mere, concrete, different, common, late, careful, perfect, hard.
Exercise 8. Fill in the missing forms of the degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
Fast, …, the fastest; good, …, the best; …, lighter, the lightest; easy, …, the easiest; rapidly, …, …; …, more, the most; …, less, …; simple, …, the simplest; bad, …, the worst; far, …, … .
Exercise 9. Rewrite the following sentences in Past Simple and Present Perfect. Add adverbial modifiers, where necessary.
| Model: The system includes … The system included … The system has included … |
1. The situation changes over time.
2. Scientists achieve considerable technical progress.
3. The discovery is widely used by scientists in many countries.
4. He prepares new programs for the computers.
5. The students study the properties of potential and kinetic energy.
6. Electrical energy is generated in many ways.
7. The company develops the project under the leadership of the British company.
8. The scientists introduce technologies for integrating and maximizing the advantages of different energy sources.
9. We plan to implement the project in three stages.
Exercise 10. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice.
1. Nobody can create or destroy energy.
2. The Arabian physicist defined light rays as streams of minute energy particles.
3. Thomas Young was the first to use the term ‘energy’.
4. Our body uses stored energy to do work.
5. Scientists have studied different forms of energy.
6. Lord Kelvin formulated the laws of thermodynamics.
7. One can find energy in a number of different forms.
8. William Rankine coined the term ‘potential energy’.
9. The lecturer is explaining the concept of energy and its transformations.
Exercise 11. Work in pairs. Make questions for each answer below with reference to the text.
1. Energy has always existed in one form or another.
2. Thomas Young was the first to use the term ‘energy’ in 1807.
3. The principle of energy conservation was postulated in the early 19th century.
4. We use heat for doing a lot of things.
5. Landslides and earthquakes release energy which has been stored as potential energy.
6. Sunlight is captured by plants as chemical potential energy.
7. Lord Kelvin formulated the laws of thermodynamics.
8. One form of energy may be transformed to another, but the total energy remains the same.
Exercise 12. Use the proper form of the verbs in brackets.
1. Energy (define) as the ability to do work or (generate) heat.
2. Robert Boyle (build) an air pump in 1656.
3. The Laws of thermodynamics (postulate) that energy can (exchange) between physical systems as heat or work.
4. Any living organism (rely) on an external source of energy.
5. The food molecules (oxidize) to carbon dioxide and water.
6. Energy conservation Law (be) a fundamental principle of physics.
7. The energy from the Sun (call) solar energy.
8. No particles or atoms (destroy) in the process of turning the sun’s nuclear potential energy into light.
9. One form of energy can (transform) into another with the help of a device, for instance, a battery, turbine or generator.
10. The name ‘potential’ energy originally (signify) the idea that the energy (can) readily (transfer) to work.
Exercise 13. Ask:
a) if one form of energy can be transformed into another;
if there are different forms of energy;
if the total energy of a system changes with time;
if Boyle formulated the law which stated that pressure and volume are inversely proportional;
b) what the energy from the Sun is called;
what the laws of thermodynamics postulate;
when Robert Boyle built the air pump;
how energy is often defined in physics;
who coined the term ‘potential energy’.
Exercise 14. Translate into English.
1. Енергія існує у різних формах.
2. При переході енергії з однієї форми у іншу, загальна кількість енергії залишається у системі сталою.
3. Закон збереження енергії вперше було сформульовано на початку 19 століття.
4. У фізиці визначають два види енергії: потенційну і кінетичну.
5. Словo «енергія» походить з грецької і вперше з’явилося у працях Аристотеля у 4 столітті до н.е.
6. Згідно закону термодинаміки будь-яка робота може бути перетворена y теплову енергію.
7. Життя будь-якого організму повністю залежить від зовнішнього джерела енергії.
8. Вчені працюють над вивченням різних форм енергії: хімічної, електричної, механічної, ядерної та інших.
9. Закон збереження енергії констатує, що енергія не може бути створена або знищена, вона тільки переходить з однієї форми в іншу.
Exercise 15. Discuss in groups “Development of the concept of energy conservation”.
Exercise 16. Memorize the following words and word combinations to text 2.
Transformation – перетворення
predict – передбачати
entropy – ентропія
spread – поширювати(ся), простягати(ся)
available – досяжний; придатний; що є в наявності
degree of freedom – ступінь свободи
permit – давати можливість; дозволяти
small scale – малий масштаб
unlikely – навряд чи
randomly – безладно
space – простір
universe - 1. всесвіт 2. земля 3. космос
radiant energy - енергія випромінювання
widespread – поширений, розповсюджений
attribute – властивість, ознака
cell – клітина
carbohydrate – вуглець
lipoid – ліпоїд (жир)
oxygen – кисень
accompany – супроводжувати
invariably – постійно
drift – дрейф
earthquake – землетрус
hail – град
interior – внутрішня частина; внутрішність; середина
Earth’s interior - надра землі
lightning – блискавка
hurricane – ураган
nova (pl. novae) – нововідкрита зірка; туманність
stellar – зоряний
black hole – чорна діра
hydrogen – водень
release – звільняти, випускати
triggering mechanism – пусковий механізм
burst – спалах
materials science – матеріалознавство
interaction – взаємодія
quasar - квазар
fission - розщеплювання (атомного ядра)
Big Bang - великий вибух
ensemble – численність; сукупність
instill – породжувати, ініціювати
mechanical engineering – машинобудування
respond – реагувати
surroundings – оточення, середовище
extract - вилучати, добувати
Exercise 17. Read and translate text 2. Make the plan of key ideas.