The Land and the People

Part I

This is Britain

Сhapter I

The Land and the People

Accent and Dialect Although the words 'accent' and 'dialect' are often used interchangeably, in linguistics a clear distinction¹ is made between accent as the particular features of a person's pronunciation, and dialect, meaning a variety² of a language with particular vocabulary and grammar. Dialects may be regionally or socially based.

In Britain, Received³ Pronunciation (RP) originated as the social accent spoken, with comparatively little regional variation, by the educated upper classes, particularly in the public schools. Because there was very little regional variation amongst speakers of RP it was used by BBC announcers⁴ and newsreaders from the early days of broadcasting, since it could be understood in all parts of the country. Today, the BBC and educated speakers in general show far more regional variation than previously and there are many modified⁵ forms of RP. Especially among younger people, regionally marked accents are now increasingly preferred to RP, and the language of broadcasters and actors recorded even a few decades ago often sounds rather formal to the modern ear. It is often assumed that regional dialects are gradually disappearing. In fact, although rural⁶ dialects are dying out in Britain, urban⁷ dialects are spoken by increasing numbers of people and are frequently heard on radio and television. Urban areas whose dialects are readily recognized by the population as a whole are London (especially the Cockney⁸ dialect of east London), Liverpool (Scouse)⁹, Tyneside in the north east of England (Geordie)¹⁰ and Birmingham (Brummie)¹¹. One of the most widely recognized rural dialects is that of the West Country, spoken in Devon and Cornwall. Cockneys are renowned¹² for their distinctive and colourful speech, with use of rhyming¹³ slang ('apples and pears' for 'stairs'), dropping¹⁴ of initial 'h' ("ouse' for 'house'), weakened¹⁵ vowel¹⁶ sounds ('mite' for 'mate'), and the substitution of some consonants¹⁷, such as 'w' for final 'l'('new' for 'kneel'), or 'f' for 'th' ('fink' for 'think'). Scouse has an accent typified¹⁸ by flat vowel sounds, nasal consonants, and a 'querulous'¹⁹ intonation. Geordie has a 'slurred'²⁰ pronunciation giving such forms as 'worra' for 'what a' and 'gorra' for 'got a'. In theWest Country, speech is typically 'burred'²¹, with prominent 'r' sounds, 'z' for 's' (as exemplified in 'Zummerzet', i.e. 'Somerset', the popular name for such speech) and dialect forms, such as 'I be' for 'I am', 'her says to we' for 'she said to us' etc. The Scots, Welsh and Irish have distinctive dialects, with many regional words and phrases. Scottish speech is often indicated in literature by the use of words and phrases such as 'aye' for 'yes', 'wee' for 'little', 'I dinna ken' for 'I don't know', 'mon', for 'man', 'laddie' for 'boy', 'lassie' for 'girl', 'bairns' for 'children' and 'ye' for 'you'. Broad (ie extreme) Scots speech may be almost unintelligible²² to a person from southern England. Welsh and Irish speech are both noted for their musical intonation, so that an Irish person's statement may sound like a question to an English listener. Welsh speech is popularly typified in such words and phrases as 'boyo' for 'man', 'look you' for 'do you see', and 'there is cold it is' for 'it is cold'. Irishness is often indicated by such expressions as 'begorra' for 'by God', 'would you be after wanting' for 'do you want', and by repetition of final phrases such as 'at all, at all'. Many immigrants in Britain come from countries where English is spoken as a first or second language and they retain²³ their variety of English. This is true for example of people from the Caribbean or the Indian subcontinent.

1.[dıs'tıηkò(¶)n] n различие 2.[v¶'raı¶tı] n разнообразие 3.[rı'sı:vd] зд. нормативный 4.[¶'nauns] v объявлять 5.['mכdıfaı] v видоизменять 6.['ru¶r¶l] a сельский 7.['¶:b¶n] a городской 8. ['kכknı] n кокни, лондонец из низов 9.['skaus] n диалект, характер- ный для жителя Ливерпуля, жи- тель Ливерпуля 10.['d_Зכ:dı] n диалект области по реке Тайн в северной Англии, особенно города Ньюкасл-на-Тайне 11.['br۸mı] n диалект Бирмингема 12.[rı'naund] a известный 13.[raım] v рифмовать 14.[drכp] v опускать 15.['wı:k¶n] v ослаблять 16.['vau¶l] a гласный 17.['kכns¶n¶nt] a согласный 18.['tıpıfaı] v служить типич-ным примером, образцом 19.['kwerul¶s] a ворчливый 20.[sl¶:] v произносить невнятно, глотать (слова) 21.[b¶:] v (особенно в Нортумбpии и северо-западной Шотландии) картавить 22.[۸nın'telıd_З¶ bl] a непонятный 23.[ri'teın] v сохранять

National Symbols

Both Britain and the USA are often represented by national symbols. The symbols may signify¹ the country as a whole or a region of it. The most obvious are the national flags. Britain's Union Jack contains the intersecting crosses of three of her patron saints: St George's cross, red on white, for England, St Andrew's cross, white on blue, for Scotland, and St Patrick's cross, red on white, for Ireland. The crosses represent the union of England with Scotland in 1707, and the union of both with Ireland in 1801. (The patron saint of Wales, St David, is not represented in the Union Jack). St George is traditionally depicted² on horseback slaying a dragon, and is also portrayed on some coins. There are two personifications of Britain: John Bull and Britannia. John Bull represents the typical Englishman, supposed to have a 'bullish' appearance and characteristics. These may be seen as favourable, ie suggesting a strong, loyal, upright³ and persevering⁴ person, or unfavourable, suggesting someone who is stubborn, cruel and mean^5. The character was popularized (but not invented) by John Arbuthnot's collection of satirical pamphlets The History of John Bull, published in 1712. Britannia is a female personification of Britain. She is depicted on coins leaning⁶ on a shield and holding a trident⁷ in one hand. She represents Britain as a victorious maritime⁸ nation. Her name is familiar from the patriotic song 'Rule, Britannia', composed in 1740. Britain is also represented by two animals, the lion and the bulldog. The lion, which with the unicorn⁹ is one of the two animal 'supporters' on the royal coat of arms¹⁰ represents pride, bravery and valour¹¹. It is also, as 'king of the animals', a symbol of power and royalty. The bulldog, like John Bull, represents both tenacity¹² and brute force. Britain is further symbolized by different plants and flowers: the rose for England, the leek¹³ and daffodil for Wales, the thistle for Scotland and the shamrock for Ireland. Another symbol for Ireland is the harp¹⁴, which is also regarded as the national musical instrument of Wales. The oak is sometimes depicted as the traditional tree of England, partly for its connotations¹⁵ of strength and endurance¹⁶, and partly for its royal associations. Not only is it regarded as the 'monarch of the forest' but it also has specific historic links with individual English kings. (Edward I held a parliament under an oak in the 14th century, and during the Civil War Charles II hid in an oak after his defeat at the Battle of Worcester in 1651). Well-known or historic buildings also serve as national symbols. In Britain, Tower Bridge, the Houses of Parliament, Big Ben and Parliament's clock tower are often used. Other popular symbolic sites are Piccadilly Circus, with its statue of 'Eros' and Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square. Britain is sometimes identified by what is regarded as a typical inhabitant. This usually means, for an Englishman, a businessman wearing a bowler¹⁷ hat and pin-stripted¹⁸ trousers and carrying a rolled umbrella. A ceremonially dressed guardsman, wearing a busby¹⁹, or a policeman with characteristic blue helmet, are also used.

1.['sıgnıfaı] v означать 2.[dı'pıkt] v изображать 3.['۸praıt] a честный 4.[‚p¶:sı'vı¶rıη] a упорный 5.[mı:n] a нечестный 6.[lı:n] v опираться 7.['traıd¶nt] n трезубец 8.['mærıtaım] a морской 9.['ju:nıkכ:n] n единорог 10.['k¶utכv 'a:mz] герб 11.['væl¶] n доблесть 12.[tı'næsıtı] n стойкость 13.[lı:k] n лук-порей 14.[ha:p] n арфа 15.[‚kכn¶u'teıò¶n] n дополнительное значение 16.[ın'dju¶r¶ns] n прочность 17.['b¶ul¶] n котелок 18.['pın 'straıpt] a зд. в мелкую полоску 19.['b۸zbı] n гусарский кивер

Aristocratic Titles Ordinary people in Britain are themselves often confused by the many titles and complicated hierarchy of the British aristocracy, but there are guiding rules for classifying the peerage by rank and title and the titles of members of the aristocracy are listed in Debrett's guides and Burke's Peerage. There are five main grades of nobility, collectively known as peers or the peerage. In order, they are: dukes, marquesses¹, earls, viscounts² and barons. All these are entitled to sit in the House of Lords, and all are called 'Lord'. There are also additional grades. The highest, ranking³ above dukes, are the royal dukes, that is, those dukes who are members of the royal family, at present five in number: the Duke of Edinburgh (Prince Philip), the Duke of Cornwall (Prince Charles), the Duke of York (Prince Andrew), the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of Kent. Ranking between royal dukes and the dukes come the two archbishops, of Canterbury and York. Bishops, not all of whom have seats in the House of Lords, rank between viscounts and barons. Some peers are life peers, that is they have not inherited their titles as hereditary⁴ peers do, but have been granted them by the monarch in either the New Year Honours List or the Birthday Honours List. Since 1958, all male life peers have been barons. Women who are made life peers are given the title countess⁵ or baroness. Baronets, who rank below barons, hold the lowest British hereditary title of honour. They are not peers and are not called 'Lord' but 'Sir'. By definition they are therefore commoners, so do not sit in the House of Lords. Below baronet in rank is the non-hereditary title of 'knight'. Knights are also called 'Sir', and the wives of knights and baronets are called 'Lady'. The sons and daughters of peers have courtesy⁶titles, which have no legal significance, and do not entitle them to sit in the House of Lords. Younger sons of dukes and marquesses are called 'Lord', and the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are called 'Lady'. Sons and daughters of earls, viscounts and barons are called 'the Honourable' ('the Hon' for short). Most peers have more than one title. Any secondary title is often adopted by a son or daughter as a courtesy title. Moreover, a peer's titles are usually different from the family surname. Thus, the Earl of Strafford, whose surname is Byng, has the secondary title of Viscount Enfield, and this is the courtesy title of his son and heir⁷, the Hon William Byng.

1.['ma:kwıs] n маркиз 2.['vaıkaunt] n виконт 3.[ræηk] v занимать место 4.[hı'redıt¶rı] a наследственный 5.['kauntıs] n графиня 6.['k¶:tısı] n учтивость, вежливость 7.[ε¶] n наследник

The Church of England The Church of England traces its origins back to the late 6th century, when St Augustine was sent to convert¹ the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity and to establish the authority² of Rome over the native Celtic church.

As the present established church of Britain, however, the Church of England dates from the 16th century, when Henry VIII broke with the papal powers in England and, by the Act of Supremacy³ became the supreme head of the Church. Ever since, the relationship between the sovereign and the Church has been clearly defined⁴: the sovereign must always be a member of the Church of England, and it is the sovereign who, on the advice of the prime minister, appoints the archbishops, bishops and clergy. The two archbishops and 21 other bishops, according to seniority, sit in the House of Lords. The Church is organized in two provinces⁵, the archdioceses of Canterbury and York, and 14 dioceses⁶, each with its cathedral. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual head of the Church, and has the title 'Primate⁷ of All England'. The Archbishop of York is 'Primate of England'. The dioceses are further subdivided into parishes⁸. A town of medium size may contain three or four parishes, each with its own parish church, while in the country a parish will normally centre on a single village and its church. Because of its history and authority, the Church of England is seen as part of the Establishment. However, although many British people regard⁹ themselves as 'C of E' or members of the Church of England, in most cases they are not regular churchgoers. Many people attend church only on special family occasions, such as christenings, weddings or funerals, or at Christmas. In country villages, however, the parish church is often a local point of village life. In its worship¹⁰ and doctrine, the Church of England has evolved¹¹ into two contrasting parties: High Church and Low Church. High Church beliefs and practice are closer to those of Roman Catholics, while Low Church beliefs are more evangelical and so are closer to the Protestant ideal. The differences are often reflected in the more elaborate¹² architecture and decoration in High Church churches. The Church's governing body is the General Synod, which deals chiefly with matters of administration, such as church work, the running of church schools, missionary activities and inter-church relations. About one state school in three is managed by the Church of England. Outside England, the Church is represented by the Anglican Communion¹³. In the British Isles this includes the Church of Wales, the Scottish Episcopal Church in Scotland and theChurch of Ireland in the Republic of Ireland. These are independent bodies, and are not established like their mother church. Every ten years Anglican bishops from all countries meet for the Lambeth Conference in London. The Conference is not an executive body, but is regarded as an important forum for discussion on such matters as doctrine and discipline, and for debate on moral and political issues. Despite its official established status, the Church is not financed by the State, and obtains its income from the voluntary donations of congregations and its investments in land and property, which are managed by the Church Commissioners. The main clergyman in a parish is known as either the vicar or the rector. (The names are historic and today there is little practical difference between the two.) The Church provides a house for the clergyman, called a vicarage or rectory, and pays a part of the cost of running it. It also pays his salary. The clergyman's wife frequently plays an active role in parish work, especially in its pastoral and social aspects. An ordained¹⁴ clergyman is either a deacon¹⁵ or a priest. A deacon is junior to a priest, and is not authorized¹⁶ to conduct all church services. Although most of the clergy are men, it is now possible for women to be ordained as deacons, but not yet as priests. The issue of the ordination of women has been hotly debated in and outside the Church. In general, it is opposed by the High Church, but favoured by the Low. Recent years have seen controversy¹⁷ in other areas of the Church. Many Anglicans were shocked when in 1984 the Rev¹⁸ David Jenkins, on his appointment as Bishop of Durham, publicly questioned the traditional doctrine on the Virgin Birth and the Resurrection¹⁹. Later that year, after his consecration²⁰, he caused further controversy when he criticized the government's social and economic policies. In general, the importance of the Church of England in British society is declining²¹. Some people feel that the Church has become outdated, and others that it fails to give the moral and spiritual lead traditionally expected of it.

1.[k¶n'v¶:t] v обращать 2.[כ:'θכrıtı] n власть 3.[sju'prem¶sı] n верховенство 4.[dı'faın] v определять 5.['prכvıns] n архиепископство 6.['daı¶ sıs] n епархия 7.['praımıt] n примас 8.['pærıò] n приход 9.[rı'ga:d] v рассматривать 10.['w¶:òıp] n богослужение 11.[ı'vכlv] v развивать 12.[ı'læb¶rıt] a продуманный, сложный 13.[k¶'mju:nj¶n] n общность, группа людей одинакового вероисповедания 14.[כ:'deın] v посвящать в духовный сан 15.['dı:k¶n] v дьякон 16.['כ:θ ¶r¶aız] v уполномочить 17.['kכntr¶v¶:sı] n спор, полемика 18.['rev¶r¶nd] a преподобный 19.[rez¶'rekò¶n] n воскресение 20.[‚kכnsı'kreıò¶n] n посвящение 21.[dı'klaın] v уменьшаться

Class Until the Second World War there were very distinct social groups in British society. There was an upper class that included the aristocracy and many people who lived on inherited¹ wealth, a middle class that could be subdivided into upper middle class, middle class and lower middle class, and a working class that included both skilled craftsmen and unskilled industrial workers and agricultural labourers. The divisions between the classes were reflected in many aspects of life. Working-class children usually left school and went out to work at the age of 14. Upper-class children were educated in private schools and formed the majority of students at university. Pubs were divided into public bars and saloon (or lounge) bars which were more expensive and more comfortable. Trains had first, second and third class carriages. Theatres had a dress circle where theatre-goers wore evening dress, and a gallery where the seats were cheaper and evening dress was not worn. Many aspects of this rigid² structure have virtually disappeared in modern Britain, although the continued existence of a private education system that educates about seven per cent of children still reflects it. The policies of governments since the Second World War in areas such as health, education, housing and taxation have on the whole had the effect of reducing³ class differences in society. There has also been a decline in manufacturing or 'blue collar' jobs and an increase in 'white collar' jobs in service industries. Nevertheless, Britain is still far from being the classless society that many politicians have set out to achieve. In modern Britain, the definitions⁴ of social class used by social scientists and market researchers are based on a division of society into six groups, according to occupation. Group A are professionals such as doctors, lawyers, senior civil servants and managers etc., group B are middle management, scientists, university lecturers etc., group Cl are other non-manual workers⁵, eg nurses and sales and clerical⁶ staff, group C2 are skilled manual workers, group D are semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers and group E are the poorest in society, for example people living on the minimum state pension, the unemployed, single parents living on state benefits, etc. People move into and out of these groups as their occupation or circumstances change. Class consciousness⁷ however, is based not so much on economic differences as on class differences that reflect family background, education and accent rather than on differences based on occupation. Class distinctions⁸ are popularly represented by stereotypes, especially in matters of clothing, speech and region of origin. This is best seen in caricatures of upper and lower class individuals, whether in literature or the contemporary media. Upper-class people are typically portrayed in country clothes, since they are primarily associated with land ownership and the three traditional aristocratic sports of hunting, shooting and fishing (sometimes written or pronounced as 'huntin', 'shootin' and 'fishin' to represent their characteristic speech). Other typically upper-class sports are polo and riding. Distinctive items of upper-class wear are peaked caps for men, head-scarves for women, and green wellington boots ('green wellies') for either. Upper-class speech is portrayed as loud, drawling⁹ and affected¹⁰ with much use of nicknames and slang. The typical upper-class person is usually thought of as a southerner, although it is perfectly possible to be Scottish and upper class. The stock¹¹ caricature of a working-class man shows him wearing a flat cap, braces¹² although these are now in fashion with some upper-class people) and boots. He is popularly thought of as living in the north of England. A working-class woman is often depicted as untidily dressed, wearing 'indoor' items such as hair curlers and bedroom slippers in the street. A popular portrayal of a working-class husband and wife exists in the cartoons of the everyday life of Andy Capp and his wife Florrie in the Daily Mirror. Sports and pastimes such as football, dog-racing, betting¹³ (especially on horse-races and in football pools), snooker¹⁴ and card-playing, together with such pub games as darts, bar billiards are considered to be typical working-class pastimes.

1.[ın'herıt] v наследовать 2.['rıd_Зıd] a закрепленный 3.[rı'dju:s] v уменьшать 4.[‚defı'nıò ¶n] n определение 5.['mænju¶l'w¶:k¶] n работник физи-ческого труда 6.['klerık¶l] a конторский 7.['kכnò¶snıs] n сознание 8.[dıs'tınkò¶n] n различие 9.[drכ:lıη] a медлительный 10.[¶'fektıd] a показной 11.[stכk] a избитый 12.[breısız] n pl подтяжки 13.[bet] v биться об заклад 14.['snu:k¶] n игра на бильярде

Employment People of working age can be divided into three groups: the employed, the self-employed, and the unemployed. At the end of the 1980s, Britain's total work-force was about 26 million, about two thirds of the adult population. Of this number, around 3 million people were self-employed, and there were about 2 million unemployed. About 40 per cent of the work-force are women, a proportion that is gradually growing. As in many countries, there has been a gradual swing¹ from employment in the manufacturing industries to jobs in service industries such as banking, retailing², hotels and catering, and public administration. About two thirds of the work-force are employed in service industries, compared with one quarter in manufacturing industry. During the 1980s, the largest rise was in the banking, insurance³ and finance sector, which increased by 50 per cent. The number of workers in transport, however, has declined. During the 1980s there were years of high unemployment, with a peak of over 3 million unemployed in 1986. A number of government schemes, programmes and incentives were introduced to help unemployed people find work. These range⁴ from the Youth Training Scheme (YTS), giving young people the opportunity to obtain a vocational⁵ qualification while under training, to Employment Training (ET), an extensive⁶ adult training programme introduced in 1988 for people who had been out of work for more than six months. Many unemployed people look for work in advertisements, such as those in local newspapers. Others make their first search through the government Jobcentres, where local jobs are advertised and where individual advice is given. Instruction in practical skills is provided for the unemployed at Skillcentres. These were at first run by the Department of Employment but are now privately managed. Training of a more theoretical kind can also be obtained through the Open College, an independent body that provides courses by radio and television. Two further schemes are Business Growth Training, which offers financial help to employers training their own employees, and the Enterprise Allowance⁷ Scheme, which helps unemployed people start their own business. Although many school-leavers obtain jobs after completing a one-year or two-year YTS course, some find the experience depressing⁸ and regard⁹ it as a waste of time. If a person is unemployed for six months or longer, he or she may attend an interview with a 'Restart' counsellor¹⁰, who will suggest alternative ways of finding work. One solution is for the person to attend a special five-day Restart course, with practical advice on the way to look for a job. Another is a place in a Jobclub, where the person is given similar advice followed by help in finding a job. A third possibility is self-employment under the Enterprise Allowance Scheme. People who remain¹¹ unemployed for a year or more are recommended to see a Restart counsellor every six months.

1.[swıη] n колебание 2.[rı:'teıl] v продавать в розницу 3.[ın'òu¶r¶ns] n страхование 4.[reınd_З] v колебаться 5.[v¶u'keıò¶nl] a профессиональный 6.[ıks'tensıv] a обширный 7.[¶'lau¶ns] n разрешение 8.[dı'pres] v огорчать 9.[rı'ga:d] v считать 10.['kaunsl¶] n советник 11.[rı'meın] v оставаться

Women

The lives of women in Britain have changed dramatically in the course of the present century as many of the social, economic and political constraints¹ have been removed. Women have gained equality with men in many fields. One of the main developments has been the increasing number of women in paid employment. This has come about not only because of recognition of the important contributions women can make, but also as a result of the altered² nature of family life. The trend³ towards later marriage means that women usually work for some years before marrying and having children, and many women combine a job with raising a young family, although many find it difficult because of a shortage of child care provision⁴. There is a degree of flexibility⁵ in some jobs and some employers provide help with child care for working mothers, but they are still in a minority. In Britain in the late 1980s about half of all married women of working age had a job or were looking for one. This is a higher proportion than anywhere else in Europe except Denmark. Although there are now few jobs that cannot be taken on by women, there is still a noticeable difference in earnings between men and women, and there are certain areas of employment where women remain⁶ thinly represented. At the end of the 1980s, for example, women's average hourly earnings were about three-quarters those of men, and there is evidence to show that the gap⁷ is widening. Female manual workers in particular are paid significantly less than men. In the leading professions, too, women are represented by a proportion of less than one to five. At present, the professions where women are most frequently found are those of pharmacists, opticians, veterinary surgeons, dentists, doctors and solicitors. Only one qualified engineer in 200 is a woman. Many professions are not geared⁸ to the career needs of women, and do not, for example, offer part-time work or provide 'career breaks' for women to have children. Nevertheless, women are now much more widely represented in the media (journalism, broadcasting, publishing) than they were, and in education many teachers are women. The disparity⁹ between women's pay and men's is an injustice that has been combated in recent years, in many instances successfully. The Equal Pay Act of 1970 made it illegal for employers to pay a woman less than a man for the same or similar work or work of equal value. The Sex Discrimination Acts of 1975 and 1986 made it unlawful to discriminate in matters of employment or training on the grounds of sex. The Equal Opportunities Commission was set up in 1975 to enforce this legislation and to promote¹⁰ equality of opportunity. In 1988 a woman cook fought a four-year legal battle for 'equal pay for work of equal value' and won her case, so that her wages were raised to match those of male painters and insulation¹¹ engineers in the company where she worked. In 1989, in a greater victory, several thousand women secretaries and typists at Lloyds Bank were granted pay rises to bring their wages to the same level as those of male senior messengers¹². In the Church of England women were admitted for ordination¹³ as deacons in 1986, and the following year the General Synod voted to proceed with legislation to allow women to be ordained as priests. As a further development, two women were admitted as priests in the Church of Ireland, a member of the Anglican Communion, in 1990. Real discrimination against women remains in some quarters, however. Women sentenced for criminal offences, for example, are more likely to be sent to prison then men, even though they represent only four per cent of the total prison population. In prison itself, too, women are often treated more harshly¹⁴ then men, especially if they do not conform¹⁵ to the popular image of 'woman as wife and mother'. By contrast, educational opportunities for women are potentially now as good as they are for men. There is still resistance¹⁶ in some schools, however, to a provision for the education of girls in technical subjects, even in information technology, while many parents remain unconvinced¹⁷ that such subjects are 'useful' for their daughters. There is still a traditional division between subjects that are perceived¹⁸ as 'boys' subjects' such as science, mathematics and computer studies, and 'girls' subjects' such as English, foreign languages and home economics. From the middle of the 19th century, women campaigned for equal voting rights with men, notably in the suffragette¹⁹ movement of the early 20th century. Only in 1918, however, were women over 30 given the vote, and full equality was not granted until 1928, when all British subjects over 21 were allowed to vote. Today women are increasingly represented in Parliament. In 1990, of the total 650 members of Parliament (MPs), 43 were women. The number, though small compared to many other European countries, is twice what it was seven years earlier. In British society generally, women occupy key posts that only a short time ago would certainly have been held by men. The obvious²⁰ example is Margaret Thatcher as Britain's first woman prime minister.

1.[k¶n'streınt] n принуждение 2.['כ:lt¶] v менять 3.[trend] n тенденция 4.[pr¶'vı_З¶n] n обеспечение 5.[‚fleksı'bılıtı] n гибкость 6.[rı'meın] v оставаться 7.[gæp] n отставание, разрыв 8.[gı¶] v связывать с … 9.[dıs'pærıtı] n неравенство 10.[pr¶'m¶ut] v способствовать 11.[‚ınsju'leıò¶n] n изоляция 12.['mesınd_З¶] n посыльный 13.[‚כ:dı'neıò ¶n] n посвящение в духовный сан 14.[ha:ò] a строгий 15.[k ¶n'fכ:m] v соответствовать 16.[rı'zıst¶ns] n сопротивление 17.[k¶n'vıns] v убеждать 18.[p¶'sı:v] v воспринимать 19.[‚s۸fr¶'d_Зet] n суфражистка 20.['כbvı¶s] a очевидный

Retirement¹ The usual age for retirement in Britain is 65 for men and 60 for women. Many people, however, continue to work beyond these ages. Whether they do so or not, they are entitled² to a state pension from retirement age, however much they earn, and are officially 'old age pensioners' (OAPs) or 'senior citizens'. Most people receive a pension from their employer as well as the state pension, after contributing³ to a pension fund during their working life. People of retirement age are also entitled to a number of other advantages, including reduced charges⁴ for some services. For example, they can travel at reduced rates⁵ or even free on public transport, do not pay for medical prescriptions, and can buy tickets for concerts, the theatre, etc at reduced prices. Some services such as hairdressing and dry cleaning are offered at reduced prices to pensioners. Many people move to a smaller house or flat when they retire and some choose to live in the country or by the sea. It is not usual for retired people to live with their children unless they are unable to live independently (for example in a 'granny flat'). When people become too frail⁶ to live alone, they are cared for either by relatives or in nursing homes or old people's homes, which are either privately⁷ owned or run by local authorities. Many retired people choose to live in sheltered⁸ housing, ie a block of flats or group of small houses specially built for older people, where there is a resident warden. Welfare services for old people include the 'meals on wheels' service run by volunteers, which supplies hot meals to people living alone, and domestic cleaning and other services provided by local authority social services departments, including the provision of day centres and pensioners' clubs. The number of retired people is steadily⁹ growing in Britain. It is now about 18 per cent of the population compared with 15 per cent at the beginning of the 1960s. Since people are living longer, they can expect many years of healthy and active retirement. Popular interests for retired people are travel (in Britain and abroad), gardening, local history, and voluntary work for charities or the local community. People who want to learn something new can follow a course at the Open University or attend the classes run by local authorities. In Britain, retired people are entitled to certain benefits. One of these is Medicare which provides subsidized medical care for people aged 65 and over. The proportion of people over retirement age is increasing in Britain.

1.[rı'taı¶ment] n выход в отставку или на пенсию 2.[ın'taıtl] v давать право 3.[k¶n'trıbju(:)t] v делать вклад 4.[tòa:d_З] n зд. расходы 5.[reıt] n тариф 6.[freıl] a болезненный 7.['praıvıtlı] alv частным образом 8.['òelt¶] v дать приют 9.['stedı] a постоянный

The Countryside The British countryside is very varied and in places very beautiful, especially in such regions as the West Country, the Lake District, the Yorkshire Dales, the mountains of Wales and Northern Ireland, and the Scottish Highlands. It comprises not just farmland but large areas of forest, moorland¹ and upland. As well as mountainous country there are extensive² areas of hills and downs, such as the Cotswolds, the Yorkshire Wolds, the Chilterns and the South Downs. There are also many attractive island groups including the Orkneys, the Shetlands, the Hebrides and the Scilly Isles. The overall charm of the countryside is enhanced³ by Britain's many rivers, streams and canals, and by the varied coastline, with its many bays and beaches. All this makes for a land where tourism is one of the major industries, and where a 'country walk' is regarded as one of the chief recreational pleasures. Access⁴ to much of the countryside is free, even over privately owned fields and farmland, by a system of public footpaths and bridleways⁵. The Country Code sets out rules for the public to observe in helping to protect farmland and the natural environment. The government, mainly through the Countryside Commissions, has established areas where the countryside may be freely enjoyed. These range⁶ from national parks and 'areas of outstanding natural beauty' to longdistance footpaths like the 'National Trails'⁷ which are designed to take the walker through Britain's most attractive scenery, such as the fens of East Anglia or the mountains of Snowdonia. These paths are maintained by the local authorities. Large-scale Ordnance Survey⁸ maps, published for every part of the country, show footpaths and public rights of way. Among special areas to be enjoyed are country parks, forest parks, 'national scenic parks' (in Scotland) and coastal tracts. Common land is also popular for walks. It is land that is open to the public, often the land that in medieval times was available to villagers for growing crops and grazing⁹ animals. The village green, a feature of many villages, is usually an area of common land and is a traditional setting for country fairs. Most country parks and forest parks provide such facilities as picnic sites for tourists, and many have special 'nature trails'. Conservation of the environment is a major issue in Britain. Nature conservation is the responsibility of the Nature Conservancy Council. Forest land, unless it is privately owned, is under the care of the Forestry Commission. This body has also set up a number of 'sites of special scientific interest', whose most important aim is nature conservation. Many local authorities, too, have established nature reserves. Around the coast, undeveloped and ecologically valuable land is protected as 'heritage¹⁰coast'. Preservation of the coastline and of many other areas of scenic beauty is also the work of the National Trust. The Trust is a charity that raises money to preserve not only land but also historic buildings. It owns many famous country-houses, gardens and ancient monuments, as well as stretches of countryside. 'Green belts' have been established round many large cities, in order to control building development and to provide open land for the public to enjoy.

1.['mu¶lænd] n торфянистая местность, поросшая вереском 2.[ık'stensıv] a обширный 3.[ın'ha:ns] v усиливать 4.['æks¶s] n доступ 5.['braıdlweı] n верховая тропа 6.[reınd_З] v простираться 7.[treıl] n тропа 8.['כ:dn¶ns's¶:veı] n государственная топографическая служба 9.[greız] v пасти 10.['herıtıd_З] n наследство

Roads The oldest roads in Britain are the straight roads built by the Romans. Stretches¹ of Roman roads remain today as the basis for modern highways. Examples are the A12 road from London to Colchester and the A33 from Winchester to Basingstoke. Most Roman roads fell into disuse when the Romans left Britain, and bridleways for horses and their riders took their place. Roads remained basic tracks until the mid-18th century, when hard surface roads began to be built. These in turn were neglected² through much of the 19th century, when railways were widely developed, and modern road-making began only in the early 20th century with the coming of the motor car. Today Britain has roads of three main types: motorways, A-roads (major motor routes) and B-roads (or minor routes). The most important roads radiate³ from the major cities, especially London, and it is from London that the key motorways run. All roads are numbered, with the lowest numbers designating⁴ the most important routes. The Al, for example, is the former Great North Road that ran from London to Edinburgh. The A2 runs from London to Dover, the A3 to Portsmouth, the A4 to Bristol and the A5 to Holyhead in north-west Wales. Other important trunk⁵ roads are the A10 from London to Cambridge and King's Lynn, the A30 to Exeter and Penzance, the A40 to Oxford and Fishguard in south-west Wales, and the A41 to Birmingham and Chester. Central government is responsible for A-roads and motorways. B-roads and other roads are built and maintained by local authorities. One of the most recent motorways to be completed is the M25, which serves as an orbital route or 'ring road' round London. Traffic on trunk roads (A-roads) and motorways has been growing rapidly, and at present such roads carry not only large numbers of cars but many heavy goods lorries, often called 'juggernauts'⁶. This increase has resulted in frequent hold-ups⁷ on motorways, especially the M25, where traffic is often seriously delayed. This is a problem that has yet to be satisfactorily solved, but many by-passes⁸ and reliefroads⁹ have been built to take heavy traffic away from the centre of towns and cities, and most new roads apart from motorways are of this type.

1.[stretò] n пространство, протяжение 2.[nı'gl¶kt] v пренебрегать, не заботиться 3.['reıdıeıt] v исходить из центра 4.['dezıgneıt] v указывать, обозначать 5.[tr۸ηk] n магистраль 6.['d_З۸g¶nכ:t] n джаггернаут см. стр.127 7.['hould۸p] n задержка, "пробка" 8.['baıpa:s] n обходной путь 9.[rı'lı:f roudz] объездные дороги

Сhapter II

House and Home

Types of Houses In Britain, government policy has for many years been to encourage people to buy their own homes by offering tax relief on mortgage¹ interest payments², with the result that the number of owner-occupiers has increased from 4 million in 1951 to 15 million in 1989. The majority of homes are houses, which outnumber flats by four to one. Many of the houses in Britain today date from the 1930s. In 1939 out of a total housing stock of 13 million, 4.5 million homes had been built in the previous ten years. The houses that today line the roads out of many towns and cities often date from this period. The 1950s and 1960s also saw a great increase in house building as the homes destroyed in the Second World War as well as the inner-city slums were replaced. In towns, there are three main types of houses: detached³, semi-detached⁴ and terraced. A detached house, standing in its own plot⁵ of land, is usually more expensive than the others. A semi-detached house (also called a 'semi') is similar, but shares⁶ one wall with its neighbour, which is its 'mirror image'. It is normally smaller than a detached house. Most of these houses have two storeys, with two rooms and a kitchen downstairs and the bedrooms and bathroom upstairs. A terraced house (or terrace-house) is one of a row⁷ of houses, often built in blocks of four or more and sometimes extending the entire length of a street. Many small terraced houses were cheaply built in the 19th and early 20th centuries as towns were rapidly expanding⁸. Some houses built in this way are, however, much older, for example the large Georgian or Regency terraces, several storeys high, that are a feature of Bath and London in particular. Bungalows⁹ (single-storey detached houses) are popular, especially with elderly people because there are no stairs to climb. They are often found in seaside towns on the south coast, where many retired people live. Houses of all these kinds can also be found in country villages, but the traditional country dwelling¹⁰ is the cottage. This is usually a small, old, detached or semi-detached house, often picturesque with old wooden beams¹¹ inside, and perhaps a thatched¹² roof and an attractive flower garden. Cottages were originally the simple homes of country people, and often had no running water or other facilities. Today, many of them have been modernized and are regarded by some people as ideal homes, not only for their 'character' but also for their attractive rural setting. Some of the grandest of all houses are found in the country. These are the large country-houses or 'stately homes'¹³, which in some cases are still occupied by members of the land owning families who originally built them. Many such houses are of historical and architectural importance, and stand in extensive¹⁴ grounds. Old or architecturally interesting houses may be designated as 'listed buildings' by the government. Flats are found mainly in towns, although they can also be self-contained units in converted¹⁵ country-houses or hotels, etc. Modern flats are often 'purpose-built' in the form of large apartment blocks or tower blocks, but many large houses in towns have also been converted into flats. Flats may be owned by the people who live in them, or rented from a private landlord or local authority. Local authorities are the main providers¹⁶ of rented accommodation. Most towns have 'council estates', groups of council houses laid out some way from the town centre. A typical council house is either semi-detached or terraced. Many large blocks of flats were built in the 1960s as part of a programme to improve the housing situation. There has been a steady increase in home ownership in recent years, partly because council house tenants¹⁷ are now able to buy their house after living in it for a certain number of years. The building of new council houses, on the other hand, declined¹⁸ sharply in the 1980s. A recent development has been the growth of 'sheltered¹⁹ housing'. This consists of blocks of modern flats or groups of small houses specially designed for elderly people. They are usually situated near the centre of a town, close to shops and other amenities²⁰, and have a resident warden. As with council houses, the residents rent their homes from the local council. Similar housing also exists for private tenants, who can purchase or rent their sheltered homes. Most home owners have bought their house by means of a mortgage loan²¹ through a building society or bank. 'First-time buyers' (people such as young married couples setting up home for the first time) almost always buy their houses this way. A typical loan is for up to 90 per cent of the price of house, repaid over 20 or 25 years in monthly instalments. The house itself is security for the loan. Some people prefer not to live in a council house, yet cannot afford²² to buy a home of their own. In such cases they may turn to a housing association. This is a non-profit-making body that converts or improves existing houses, or builds new ones, then rents them out at rates which people can afford. A small housing association may own a group of sheltered homes for elderly people, while a large one can own literally thousands of homes. Another alternative for people in this category is to rent or buy a 'mobile home', which is actually a fixed caravan-type home on a caravan site (usually called a 'home park'). In Britain, house prices have generally risen faster than other prices and incomes and houses have been a good investment²³ so that people often move house in order to own a bigger property. By the end of the 1980s, however, the rapid rise in house values seemed to have come to an end. Houses are usually bought and sold in Britain through an estate agent, using the legal services of a solicitor.	1.['mכ:gıd_З] n заклад, ипотека 2.['ıntr¶st 'peım¶nts] n уплата процентов 3.[dı'tætòt 'haus] особняк 4.[semı-] полу- 5.[plכt] n участок земли 6.[òε¶] v делить 7.[r¶u] n ряд домов, улица 8.[ıks'pænd] v расширять, увеличивать 9.['b۸ηg¶l¶u] n дом с верандой, бунгало 10.['dwelıη] n жилище, дом 11.[bı:m] n балка, брус 12.[θætò] v крыть соломой 13.['steıtlı'h¶um] n потомственный дом 14.[ıks'tensıv] a обширный 15.[k¶n'v¶:t] v превращать, переделывать 16.[pr¶'vaıd¶] n поставщик 17.['ten¶nt] n наниматель, жилец 18.[dı'klaın] v уменьшаться, идти на убыль 19.['òelt¶] v см. стр.130 20.[¶ 'mı:nıtız] коммунальные удобства 21.[l¶un] n заем, ссуда 22.[¶'fכ:d] v позволять 23.[ın'vestment] n вложение
Technology in the Home Many homes in Britain now have electrical and electronic aids and instruments that would have been unimaginable a quarter of a century ago. In 1988 the percentage of British homes with various types of equipment¹ was as follows: television sets 98 per cent, washing-machines 85 per cent; telephones 85 per cent, freezers (including fridge-freezers) 75 per cent, videocassette recorders (VCRs) 50 per cent, microwave ovens² 39 per cent and personal computers 17 per cent. Nearly seven homes out of ten also have a car, and the majority have a radio. Kitchen and domestic appliances³ also found in many homes include electric or electronic clocks, toasters, kettles, blenders⁴, mixers and vacuum cleaners. In Britain, the amount of money spent on electrical and electronic products has risen significantly in recent years, and many homes contain more specialized equipment such as audio equipment (especially music centres and compact disc players) and home computers (including word processors). Computers are used for work (or a hobby or interest) and for recreation, in the latter⁵ case mostly in the form of children's computer games. As more and more people are working from home, an increasing number of households⁶ now have fax machines, operating over the telephone line, as well as answering machines for the telephone itself. Since watching television is the most popular leisure activity in Britain, and with the increasing sophistication⁷ of TV systems themselves, it is not surprising that much recent technology in the home relates specifically to television. Many televisions in Britain now receive one or more of the three main teletext systems. British Telecom, Britain's largest telecommunications company, provides 'Prestel' a public viewdata⁸ system transmitted over the telephone and viewed on a television screen. The two main broadcasting companies also have their own teletext systems. That of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is called 'Ceefax', and that of the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) is called 'Oracle'. Most modern televisions, too, have remote-control⁹ devices, chiefly used for turning on and off, for switching from one channel to another, and for 'zapping'¹⁰ (running a recorded programme 'fast forward'). In addition, an increasing number of televisions can be used with a digital scanner¹¹, allowing the viewer to select and store programmes to be watched later. A number of banks and shops now operate a 'teleshopping' system, enabling people to order goods from shops, book travel tickets, check bank balances and so on by using a small computer terminal¹² plugged¹³ into the telephone socket. The text is viewed on a linked screen as part of British Telecom's 'Prestel' system. There have been similar technological developments in telephones. Many people now have a cordless¹⁴ telephone for home use, which does not need to be plugged into a socket, or a cellphone¹⁵ which can be used in a car or train. A cellphone is a pocket telephone used in a radio system, which operates through a network¹⁶ of transmitters each serving a small, geographical area known as a 'cell'. The cellphone switches frequencies¹⁷ automatically as it passes from one cell to another. In Britain there are two competing cellphone systems, Racal-Vodaphone and Cellnet. 'Personal communications networks' (PCNs), a more advanced form of cellphone network, are also being added to the list of facilities available.	1.[ı'kwıpm¶nt] n оборудование 2.[۸vn] n печь 3.[¶'plaı¶nsız] n приборы, оборудование 4.['blend¶] n миксер, мешалка 5.['læt¶] a последний 6.['haush¶uld] n семья 7.[s¶fıstı'keıò¶n] n изощренность, утонченность 8.['vju:deıt¶] n зд. "бегущая строка" 9.[rı'm¶ut k¶n'tr¶ul] n дистанционное управление 10.[zæp] v зд. ускоренный просмотр 11.['skæn¶] n развертывающее устройство 12.['t¶:minl] n клемма 13.[pl۸g] v зд. вмонтировать 14.['kכ:dlıs] a беспроводной 15.['self¶un] n сотовый телефон 16.['netw¶:k] n сеть 17.['frı:kw¶nsı] n частота

Accommodation When British people are away from their own house, or have no home of their own, there are various kinds of places to stay in. For holiday-makers who can afford it, and for people travelling on business, a hotel is usually the first choice. Most towns have one or more hotels, while some of the most luxurious¹ and expensive hotels are in the country and are often large country-houses that have been converted². Many country inns also offer overnight accommodation. A cheaper kind of accommodation, especially for holiday-makers, is a guest-house³. This is normally a large private house and is run as a small family hotel. 'Bed and breakfast' ('B and B') is usually in a smaller house where the owners let one or two bedrooms to overnight visitors. Houses that provide⁴ bed and breakfast accommodation for longer stays are sometimes called boarding-houses⁵. They are often found at seaside resorts. A popular kind of accommodation is a self-catering⁶ holiday cottage. This is a house, often in the country, where a family or group of people can stay for a week or two at a time, cooking their own meals and paying rent to the owner. An alternative⁷, especially in seaside resorts, is a holiday flat. Elderly people who can no longer live in their own home often live in a retirement⁸ or residential home (also called an old people's home or rest-home). Many such homes are comfortable and resemble⁹ country hotels, with attractive gardens, but others are dreary¹⁰ and have few comforts. Young people who leave home to work or study often stay in lodgings¹¹ called 'digs'¹². In many cases, this is a bed-sitting-room (or 'bed-sit') in a private house. Students, however, often live in college hostels or halls of residence, which many people prefer if they enjoy the company of others. The owner of a guest-house or boarding-house is often called a landlady. In the past, landladies have had a reputation for being unfriendly and inhospitable. This is mainly because some of them enforced strict rules, especially about being punctual for meals and the noise made by children, etc. Most modern landladies, however, are efficient¹³ but friendlypeople, enforcing a minimum of rules. Many people in Britain have no home at all, with the number of homeless in the late 1980s double that of ten years earlier. This increase is mainly due to changes in the way social security benefits¹⁴ are paid, periods of rapid¹⁵increase in house prices, and a sharp decline¹⁶ in the number of council houses being built. Local authorities have an obligation¹⁷ to provide accommodation for homeless families in their area and many families are housed in bed-and-breakfast accommodation until permanent¹⁸ housing for them can be found. The homeless also include young people who have run away from home or a children's home, elderly people who have no family, and the mentally disturbed¹⁹, all forced to live wherever they can. This often means 'living rough'²⁰, begging²¹ or travelling by day and sleeping in the open or in doorways at night. The big cities, especially London, have a large number of such homeless people. One part of London's South Bank area has come to be called 'Cardboard²² City' because of the many people living there in huts made from cardboard boxes. There are some free hostels for the young homeless, but these are for short stays. The charity²³ Shelter²⁴ works on behalf of the homeless, and the Salvation Army, a religious charity, offers them food and shelter.

1.['l۸kò¶r ¶s] a роскошный 2.[kכn'v¶:t] v переделывать 3.['gesthaus] n частный пансион 4.[pr¶'vaıd] v предоставлять 5.['bכ:dıη'haus] n пансион, меблированные комнаты со столом 6.['self'keıt¶rıη] n самообслужи-вание 7.[כ:l't¶:n¶tıv] n альтернатива, выбор 8.[rı'taı¶ment] n выход в отставку или на пенсию 9.[rı'zembl] v походить 10.['drı¶rı] a мрачный 11.['lכd_Зıη] n комната, квартира 12.[dıg] n разг. берлога, нора 13.[ı'fıò¶nt] a эффективный, целесообразный 14.['ben¶fıt] n пенсия, пособие 15.['ræpıd] a быстрый 16.[dı'klaın] n снижение 17.[כblı'geıò¶n] n обязательство, обязанность 18.['p¶:m¶n¶nt] a постоянный 19.[dıs't¶:b] v расстраивать 20.[r۸f] a трудный 21.[beg] v нищенствовать 22.['ka:dbכ:d] n картон 23.['tòærıtı] n благотвори-тельность 24.[òelf¶] n приют

Electricity and Gas Most homes in Britain, as well as all businesses and manufacturing industries, are provided with a supply of electricity or gas, and in many cases both. In the home, electricity is used for lighting and for providing power for domestic appliances such as refrigerators, washing-machines, and radio and television sets, although many people have portable radios that use batteries. A large number of homes use electricity for cooking and heating, the domestic uses to which gas is also put. The supply of both types of power to the home is measured by meters. The meters are read, usually quarterly, by an official from the appropriate¹ company, which then sends a bill to the customer. Some homes, however, still have meters that operate only when a coin is inserted², but these are now generally regarded as old-fashioned and are being replaced. They exist mostly in temporary³ or rented⁴ accommodation such as hostels and 'bed-sits'. Until recently, both the electricity and gas industries in Britain were public companies, operating through a number of regional boards. The main body of the electricity supply industry in England and Wales was the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB), which ran the power-stations and owned the 'national grid'⁵, the main transmission system of the country. In 1990 the electricity industry was privatized and the CEGB was split⁶ into four separate companies: PowerGen and National Power, both providing electricity from fossil-fuelled⁷ (non-nuclear) plants, Nuclear Electric, providing electricity from nuclear power stations, and the National Grid, owned by the country's 12 supply companies. PowerGen and the larger National Power c

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