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Literature Focus II. The Epic and the Epic Hero
The Epic TraditionPeople are living in fear as an evil force threatens to destroy the land. Then a hero appears. Brave, strong, and good, the hero defeats the evil force and saves the land and its people. You know this story well. It is one of the most widely told stories in literature, as well as one of the oldest. In times past, the deeds of the hero were told in the form of an epic—a long narrative poem that recounts, in formal language, the exploits of a larger-than-life hero. Ancient epic poets and their audiences viewed their epics as records of their peoples’ early histories.
The earliest epics date back to a time when most people were illiterate. Recited by poets, probably with musical accompaniment, these epics were the movies of their day. Audiences were enthralled by monsters, perilous journeys, and fierce battles. Some of the early epics were eventually written down. Of most, we have only fragments, but a few complete epics have survived. Historians and anthropologists look at epics as cultural records of the societies that produced them.
The epic is found in cultures around the world, thus indicating the timeless and universal human need to transmit legends from one generation to another. The earliest surviving epic is Gilgamesh composed by the Sumerians in one of the ancient languages of Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq). It tells of the great deeds of Gilgamesh, a legendary king who had ruled hundreds of years earlier. Centuries later, the ancient Greeks had their epics: the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Spanish had The Song of El Cid; the French, The Song of Roland; and the Anglo-Saxons, Beowulf. Works about modern heroes such as Superman and Luke Skywalker continue the epic tradition today.
Epic FormMore than a thousand years after Gilgamesh, the ancient Greek poet Homer established the standard features of the epic form in Western literature with the Iliad and the Odyssey. These features include
• poetic lines that have a regular meter and formal, elevated, or even lofty language;
• main characters who have heroic or superhuman qualities;
• gods or godlike beings who intervene in the events;
• action on a huge scale, often involving the fates of entire peoples;
• stories that begin in medias res (Latin for “in the middle of things”) or at a critical point in the action.
The classical Greek epics also established the use of certain literary devices. Two of the most notable examples of repeated elements are stock epithets and kennings.
• Stock epithetsare adjectives that point out special traits of particular persons or things. In Homer, stock epithets are often compound adjectives, such as the “swift-footed” used to describe Achilles in the Iliad; the goddess Athena is “gray-eyed” and the sea is “wine-dark.”
| AN EPIC HERO is a person • of noble birth or high position, and often of great historical or legendary importance • exhibiting character traits,or qualities, that reflect important ideals of society • performing courageous, sometimes superhuman, deeds that reflect the values of the era • performing actions that often determine the fate of a nation or group of people |
Stock epithets and kennings were building blocks that a poet could recite while mentally preparing for the next line or stanza. Epithets had an added advantage—they were designed to fit metrically into specific parts of the lines of verse. In skillful hands, these “formulas” helped to establish tone and reinforce character traits and setting.
The Epic HeroThe epic hero is a man—women take subordinate roles in traditional epics—of high social status whose fate affects the destiny of his people. Epic plots typically involve supernatural events, long periods of time, distant journeys, and life-and-death struggles between good and evil. Through physical strength, skill as a warrior, nobility of character, and quick wits, the epic hero almost always defeats his enemies, be they human or demonic. The hero is rarely modest, and boasting is almost a ritual in epics. The epic hero embodies the ideals and values of his people. Odysseus, for example, displays the Greek ideal of aretē, or all-around excellence. He is a great warrior, a cunning leader, a clever speaker, and highly skilled at everything from sailing to plowing.
Rooted in ancient Germanic tradition, the values celebrated in Beowulf include courage and loyalty. The end of the poem praises Beowulf for “a life / As noble as his name,” a compliment that could extend to heroes throughout history, from Gilgamesh to today’s comic book and movie heroes.
Epic ProportionsEpics from different languages and time periods do not always have the same characteristics. Kennings, for example, are not found in Homer’s epics.Most epics share certain conventions,which reflect the larger-than-life events that a hero might experience.
• The settingis vast in scope, often involving more than one nation.
• The plotis complicated by supernatural beings or events and may involve a long and dangerous journey through foreign lands.
• Dialogueoften includes long, formal speeches delivered by the major characters.
• The themereflects timeless values, such as courage and honor, and encompasses universal ideas, such as good and evil or life and death.
• The styleincludes formal diction(the writer’s choice of words and sentence structure) and a serious tone(the expression of the writer’s attitude toward the subject).
| Reading In 991 Viking raiders defeated an Anglo-Saxon force, killing its leader and many of his followers. In a heroic song written a few years later, a poet commemorated the Anglo-Saxons’ heroic last stand. from The Battle of Maldon The strife was stern, warriors were steadfast, “Heart must be braver, courage the bolder, Bold in battle; fighters fell Mood the stouter as our strength grows less! Weary with wounds. Death covered earth. Here on the ground my good lord lies Oswold and Ealdwald all the while, Gory with wounds. Always will he regret it Both the brothers, marshalled their men; Who now from this battle thinks to turn back. Bade friend and kinsmen endure in combat I am old in years; I will never yield, And never weaken, but wield the sword. But here at the last beside my lord, Byrhtwold encouraged them, brandishing buckler, By the leader I love I think to lie.” Aged companion shaking ash-spear; Stout were the words he spoke to his men: |
| Reading Check 1. What examples of alliteration do you find in this excerpt from The Battle of Maldon? 2. Which values of the Anglo-Saxons does this passage from The Battle of Maldon reflect? |