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Theoretical Framework
The information about the way learners use the strategies and the kind of strategies they use in the interaction with their environment, would help us manage our resources and decision making processes. Hurd and Lewis (2008) maintain that through strategy use, learners try to develop a meaningful interface with the learning environment and respond to their particular learning contexts. On the other hand, Oxford (2008: 51) believes that effective learners are typically aware of their strategies for learning, can judge the effectiveness of these strategies, and can choose strategies well. Analysis of the research reveals that more proficient L2
learners tend to use wider range of strategies and employ them more often than less proficient learners (Chamot, 2004, Oxford, 2008).
Since learners are thinking participants who can influence both the processes and the desired outcome of their own learning, the use of strategies embodies taking active, timely, coordinated responsibility for learning. Studies should consider a number of variables that are likely to affect learner autonomy and the use of learning strategies and tactics. These variables include not only the geographic area of the world but also socioeconomic background, main discipline of study, gender, age, learning style, goals, interests, travel experience and schooling. Moreover, studies need to address not only trends but also variations or differences, both within and across cultural settings (Oxford, 2008). Studies in learner strategies fall into two basic types. The first is descriptive studies. Descriptive studies have attempted to define:
1) The features of a good language learner
2) The total number of strategies that learners use
3) Comparisons of strategy use between one group of learners and another group of learners. The second type is intervention studies. These studies have attempted to discover whether it is possible to bring about change in learners' strategy use through a process of learner training by teachers or by researchers (Macaro, 2001). Analyzing learner’s role, Graham (1997) states that one of the major factors influencing the successful language learning was the learning strategies that students had developed. A number of studies in the past tried to identify the range and nature of the strategies used by good language learners. Chamot (2004) found that more successful students used learning strategies more often, more appropriately, with greater variety, and in ways that helped them complete the task successfully.
The issues that arise from the studies done in the strategy include identification procedures of learning strategies, linking of specific strategies to specific tasks, individual differences, strategy instruction, surveying the experts, terminology and classification of strategies, the effects of learner characteristics on strategy use, strategy type and language skills, and the effects of culture and context on strategy use (Cohen, 2007, Takuchi, Griffiths, and Coyle, 2007, Oxford and Lee, 2007, White, Schramm, and Chamot, 2007, Cohen, 2003, Macaro and Vaderplank, 2007, Erler and Finkbeiner, 2007, Chamot, 2004). Also more proficient language learners use a greater variety and often a greater number of learning strategies (Chamot, 2004). Differences between more and less proficient language learners have been
found in the number and range of strategies used, in how the strategies are applied to the task, and in the appropriateness of the strategies for the task. In these studies, students’ understanding of the task’s requirements and whether they could match a strategy to meet those requirements seemed to be a major determinant of effective use of language learning strategies. Higher levels of language proficiency have also been associated with less anxiety and more confidence, indicating that affective factors in addition to learning strategies can influence performance on a task. Similarly, language learning strategy researchers have argued for the central role of meta-cognitive knowledge and meta-cognitive learning strategies in language learning.
2.1. Analysis of strategy definitions
In the process of describing variations in human cognitive system a number of terminologies are applied by researchers. The most common ones are process, style, and strategy. There has been some confusion and variations in the use of these terms (Brown, 2007). However, they describe different human traits in the processing of information. The term process refers to basic, common, and general characteristics of every human being such as recalling, storing, association, and perceiving. Styles are general characteristics, tendencies, and preferences differentiating people from each other, e.g. traits such as visual and tactile. Strategy refers to specific tendencies and approaches varying within an individual such as behaviors and techniques. Technically learning strategies have been defined from different perspectives. Oxford and Crookall (1989) have assumed a general view of the concept. Generally these researchers believe that learning strategies are the steps taken by the learners to aid the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information. Moreover, strategies are referred to as learning techniques, behaviors, or learning to learn, problem solving and study skills and can make leaning more efficient, easier, faster, enjoyable, effective and transferable to new cases. But Oxford (1990, 2008) has approached the concept from a more language learning specific point of view and maintains that on the one hand, foreign or second language learning strategies are the specific procedures students use to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing and using L2. On the other hand, they are operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information. More specifically, she believes that strategies are tools for active and self-directed involvement which is essential for developing communicative competence. Learning strategies are the way students learn a wide
range of subjects. In the analysis of these researchers’ views we come to conclusion that their model of strategy consists of a process involving steps, operations, procedures, skills and tools.
In the analysis of O’Malley and Chamot (1990) we come to the conclusion that strategies are procedures involving techniques, approaches, thoughts or deliberate actions which are conscious and data driven that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information that individuals use to accomplish a learning goal or facilitate a learning task (Chamot, 2004).
Believing in autonomy for learners, Griffiths (2008, 87) states that strategies are the activities consciously chosen by learners for the purpose of regulating their own language learning. Cohen (2003, 2007) maintains that strategies are conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the goal of improving knowledge and understanding of target language by promoting successful and efficient completion of language learning and allowing language learners to develop their own individualized approach to learning and utilizing the language and linking their approach to specific tasks. In another study, he holds that strategies are the moves constituting the steps and actions consciously selected by learners either for the
learning of a second language, the use of it, or both. They establish the organization of learning, rehearsing and bolstering cognitive traits (Cohen, 2003, 2007).
2.3 Types of strategies
This part of the study provides a short introduction of language learning strategies. Oxford (1990) developed a system of language learning strategies which is more comprehensive and detailed than earlier classifications. She divides strategies into two major classes: direct and indirect. Those used directly in dealing with a new language are called direct and the indirect strategies are used for general management of learning. Direct strategies facilitate the development of specific aspects of communicative competence. They deal with direct learning and use of a new language. They are beneficial to the students because they help store and recover information. These strategies help learners to produce language even when there is gap in knowledge. They are subdivided into three groups:
memory, cognitive and compensation strategies. Indirect language learning strategies work together with the direct strategies. They help learner regulate the learning process. These strategies support and manage language learning indirectly but powerfully. They are subdivided into three groups: meta-cognitive, affective and social strategies.