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Syntactic Relations and Ways of their Realisation



 

Unlike some syntactic processes as, for example, representation that is observed in English and is completely alien to present-day Ukrainian and other languages, the syntactic relations in contradiction to them present a phenomenon characteristic of all the 5651 languages of the world. Syntactic relations, therefore, constitute a universal fea­ture and are realised depending on their grammatical nature either at sentence level or at word-group (словосполучення) level.

There exist four types of syntactic relations that are also realised in different languages partly via different means. These are: 1) predica­tive relations; 2) objective relations; 3) attributive relations and 4) various adverbial relations.

Not all these relations are equally represented in the contrasted languages. Thus, predicative relationsmay be in English and in most other West European Germanic and Romance languages of two sub­types: a) primary predicative relations and b) secondary predica­tiverelations. The latter, it must be emphasised, are erroneously con­sidered to be completely missing in present-day Ukrainian.

I. Primary predicationis universal. It finds its realisation be­tween the subject and predicate in any two-member sentence of any paradigmatic form or structural type. Consequently, primary predica­tion presents a grammatical/syntactic and logico-semantic relation on the Subject-Predicate axis. Eg:

 

"I never said I was a beauty". - Я ніколи не казав, що я є красенем. -

he laughed. (Maugham) сказав, усміхнувшись, він.

 

In this quotation three predicates of two types are realised: two simple verbal predicates (/ said, he laughed] and one compound nominal predi­cate (I was a beauty). These types of predicate are presented in Ukrainian as well. Cf. Я не казав, усміхнувся він, and Я є красенем.

Consequently, predication of these sentences in both contrasted languages has an identical expression.

II. Secondary predicative relation is formed in English by verbals in connection with other nominal parts of speech. The secondary predication constructions are formed in English by the so-called in­finitival, participial and gerundial complexes, which function as vari­ous parts of the sentence. The nomenclature of them is as follows 1) the objective and the subjective with the infinitive constructions which perform respectively the function of the complex object and that of the complex subject. For example:

He stood by the creek and heard Він стояв біля струмка і чув як він it ripple over the stones. (Cusack) (струмок) хлюпоче по камінцях. He stood watching the red dawn Він стояв і спостерігав, як народжу-єть-

break in the east. (Caldwell) ся (червоний) світанок на сході.

 

It goes without saying that the complex object expressed in this Ukrainian translation through the object subordinate clauses can also be conveyed with the help of nouns. Cf. Він чув хлюпіт/жебоніння води по камінцях or in the second sentence: Він спостерігав за на­родженням світанку на сході. Neither of these Ukrainian variants conveys the nature of the secondary predication expressed by the Eng­lish objective with the infinitive constructions.

 

Objective relations. These, like the predicative, attributive and adverbial relations are undoubtedly pertained to all languages without exception. They are directed by the action of the transitive verb on some object, which may be either a life or lifeless component. Hence, the notions of seeing/hearing somebody or something of being given smth. by somebody, etc. are pertained to each single language and to all lan guages of the world irrespective of their structural/typological differenc es. Hence, depending on the concrete language, these rela­tions may have different/unlike forms of expression i.e. realisation. Thus, the notion to giving something to somebody can be expressed as follows:

Language Realisation of case relation
In Ukrainian In English In German In Italian In French дати книжку (accusative case) Петрові (dative case) Give a book to Peter/give Peter a book (no case forms) Ein Buch (accusative case) dem Peter (dative case) ge­ben Dein Peter (dative case) ein Buch (accusative case) geben Dare il libro a Pietro/ dare a Pietro il libro (no case donner la livre

Therefore only in Ukrainian and German the objective case rela­tion of nouns and in the former the accusative case of them (cf. Взя­ти/дати книжку, листа, дитину) have a synthetic way of expression. English, German, French, Italian and Spanish (like some other lan­guages) have no synthetic expression of case (objective, accussative and some others) of nouns and consequently of case relations either, which are expressed analytically (by means of prepositions). Cf.

"Come on", said Mr. Sloan to "Ходім", - сказав Томові пан Слоан,

Tom, "we're late". (Fitzgerald) -ми запізнюємось.

Isomorphism is observed, however, in the syntactic connection of the English or Italian objects expressed by some personal pronouns which take the objective case form (cf. for me, her, him, us, them; a me, a te, a noi/a voi, etc.). The expression of the objective relation co­incides then not only in English and Ukrainian (cf. in German: gib ihm/ ihnen or in Italian date mi, etc.). This can be seen in following examples:

"Tell him we could wait, will you?" But the rest offended her. (Ibid.)

"Скажіть йому, ми почекаємо. Добре?" Все інше ображало її.

 

Objective relations can also be expressed via a preposition and the synthetic form of the governed nominal part of speech (usually personal pronoun in English). Eg:

 

"You hadn't any pity for me, had you?" Walter could only stare at him. (L.P. Hartly)

"Ти не мав до мене ніякого жалю, правда ж?" Волтер тільки вирячився

на нього.

Objective relations, therefore, can be expressed in English and in several other languages with the help of analytical means including the syntactic placement of objective complements. For example, in English:

 

Mary sat next to Diana. "Just listen to your husband", Diana exclaimed.

 

Мері підсіла до Діани. - Ти тільки прислухайся до свого чоловіка! - вигукнула Діана.

 

 

IV. Attributive relations. These are formed in all languages between adjuncts and head words (subordinating parts) of nominal word-groups. This can be seen, for example, in the following English sentence and its Ukrainian counterpart:

 

The young man was still fresh, with jaunty fair hair and alert eyes. (D. Lessing)

Молодий шахтар ще був свіжим новачком з неслухняною світлою чуприною і жвавими очима.

 

The attributive components in the English sentence (young man, jaunty fair hair, alert eyes) do not agree syntactically with their head nouns as their Ukrainian equivalents do (cf. молодий шахтар, неслу­хняною чуприною, свіжим новачком, жвавими очима). Each Ukrainian adjunct reflects the grammatical number, case and gender of its head noun through the corresponding endings. The English ad­juncts, on the contrary, rarely combine with their head components by means of their inflexions, the main means being semantic and syntac­tic placement (often with prepositions). This becomes especially evi­dent in cases with the indeclinable adjuncts which are, for example, infinitives, gerunds, adverbs and other parts of speech (or their para­digmatic forms). For example: books for reading, books to read/to be read and to be translated, September five/fifth, the then governments, etc. Such kind of adjuncts are rare through not completely excluded in Ukrainian. For example: ба­жання виграти, бажання відпочити, номер два (alongside of но­мер другий/ другий номер), etc. The overwhelming majority of Ukrainian adjuncts, however, agree with the head word in number, case and gender. Cf. гарний день, гарна погода, гарне вбрання, гар­ні квіти; перший день, першого дня, першої зміни, першій зміні, перше змагання, першого змагання, перші сходи, перших сходів, першим сходам, etc.

Therefore, attributive relations in Ukrainian are mostly expressed with the help of synthetic means, i.e. via inflections, which is observed only in some four cases in English (when the adjuncts are the demon­strative pronouns this, that, such_a and many_a in singular and these, those, such and many in plural). Eg: this dumb beast, that hand, these bandages, those bitter lips, such a day - such days, many a boy - many boys (S. Chaplin). In Ukrainian, naturally, all adjectives, ordinal nu­merals, participles and adjectives-pronouns agree in number, case and gender with the head word. Cf.: червоний місяць, червона квітка, червоне небо, червоні очі; працюючий мотор, працююча зміна, працююче колесо, працюючі люди; твій брат, твого брата, твоя сестра, твоєї сестри, твоє пальто, твого пальта, (в) твоєму пальті, твої проблеми, твоїх проблем, твоїм проблемам, etc.

Nevertheless Ukrainian adjuncts may sometimes not agree in num­ber, case and gender (as it is mostly in English). It happens when the adjunct is an indeclinable part of speech or a word-group. Eg.: бажан­ня поспати, фільм "Вони боролися за волю батьківщини", акція "Допоможемо дітям-інвалідам", etc. Such and the like attributive word-groups are common in English. Cf. They fought for their moth­erland picture, America fights back action, boy and girl affair, night shift workers, etc.

Generally, however, attributive relations in English and Ukrainian are realised with the help of quantitatively the same but qualitatively rather different means and ways of connection (and expression).

V. Adverbial relationsin the contrasted languages are created both in co-ordinate and in subordinate word-groups to express differ­ent adverbial meanings. The latter may find their realisation in iso­morphic by syntactic connection and componental structure co­ordinate or subordinate word-groups. Subordinate word-groups can be in all European languages substantival, verbal, adverbial and others. Co-ordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations may be a) substantival: in winter and/or in summer (time) зимою та/чи літом; by hook or by crook усіма правдами і неправдами (manner), b) adverbial, i.e. con­sisting of adverbial components: quickly and well швидко й добре (manner or attendant circumstances); neither seldom nor often ні ча­сто ні рідко (time or frequency), etc.

Subordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations and mean­ings may be 1) substantival:rains in March; university winter exami­nations in Ukraine, the harvest of 2002, дощі в березні, зимові іспи­ти в університетах України, урожай 2002 року', винаходи 20 cm., etc.

2)Verbal word-groupsexpressing local or temporal meanings and those of attendant circumstances: to work/to be working there (local adv. relation), соте/coming soon, raising early, arrive next week/on Sunday (temporal relations), to work hard, to speak slowly, (adverbial relation of manner), etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: мешкати в Україні, працювати тут/там, приходити невдовзі/скоро, приїжджати на­ступного тижня/в неділю, вставати рано, працювати добре, гово­рити повільно.

3)Adverbial word-groupsare formed on the basis of adverbs or adverbial phrases (as heads): very well, seriously enough, rather well, very early, soon enough, late on Sunday, early in 2001, somewhere there, almost here, etc. And in Ukrainian: досить добре, зовсім сер­йозно, дуже рано, ще рано, пізно в неділю, наприкінці 2002 року, десь там, майже тут/ на окраїні.

4)Co-ordinate adverbial word-groups:soon and well, slowly but certainly, early or late, neither here nor there, here and everywhere, etc. скоро й повільно зате напевне, рано чи пізно, ні тут ні там, тут і скрізь, etc.

The adverbial relations in all languages usually coincide with vari­ous adverbial meanings, the main of which are as follows:

1. Temporal relationswhich express adverbial meanings of time or frequency: the meeting in 1991 or: the 1991 meeting, the detention of last August or: the last August detention, зустріч 1991 року, за­тримання минулого серпня, зустріч у понеділок, etc.

2. Local relations:the house in Manhattan, life near the seaport, meetings at the hotel, помешкання в Мангеттені, життя біля/ по­близу морського порту, зустрічі в готелі.

 







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