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Ізоморфізм та аломорфізм у типах синтаксичних процесів і у формах їхньої реалізації в синтаксичних одиницях мов, що порівнюються.
Syntactic Processes, their Types and Ways of Realisation
Syntactic processes are various in the contrasted languages and they find their realisation only in word-groups and sentences. The realisation of these processes in English and Ukrainian syntaxemes may be achieved both by isomorphic and allomorphic ways and means, the main of which are as follows:
1. Extension which is achieved in both contrasted languages through adding subordinate components to an element that is the head/nucleus, i.e. subordinating in the syntaxeme. Extension in English and Ukrainian syntaxemes may be achieved both by syndetic, i.e. explicit, synthetic or analytical means or (which is more often in English) asyndetically, i.e. only by way of placement of components. These processes are naturally realised in smaller and larger syntactic units which are word-groups and sentences. The former consist of two or more notional words connected by isomorphic or allomorphic grammatical means and expressing some sense. Eg: this book - these books, to see somebody - to see him; books for reading, library books, worth reading, red from excitement, to read much/well, very well, etc. Such and the like word-groups are known to be syntactically free contrary to stable (усталені) or phraseological word-groups as, for example: to throw light, to set free, to make steps, etc. All word-groups in sentences usually perform the syntactic function of a part of the sentence.
As to their structure, word-groups can be unextended, i.e. consisting of two notional words (read well, nice flowers, good enough) and extended which consist of more than two notional words, e.g. to go to work every day, not to know what to do, strike the iron while it is hot, etc.
2. Expansion as a syntactic process is equally aimed at enlarging the content of word-groups and sentences in either of the contrasted languages. It is no less often resorted to than extension though by its nature it is a completely different syntactic process representing a coordinate joining of components which are syntactically equal in rank. Connected in this way and maintaining the syntactic status of componental parts of the syntactic units unchanged may be in English and Ukrainian various parts of speech functioning as expanded parts of the sentence. Expansion is usually achieved by way of addition (termed so by Почепцов 1971: 121). The formed in this way (through addition) strings of components usually function as homogeneous parts of the sentence.
3. Representation (репрезентація) which is a particular process of syntactic substitution alien to the Ukrainian language. It represents a kind of reduction in which the component of a syntaxeme is used to present the content of the whole syntactic unit, which remains in the preceding syn-taxeme but its meaning is implicitly represented by some element. For example: "I don't know if he's hungry, but I am." (I. Baldwin) Here the linking verb am in the closing co-ordinate clause (but I am) represents the whole subordinate clause "if he's hungry".
No less often used alongside of the linking verb in present-day English is the syntactic substituting particle to.Eg. "He thought of making another phone call, but he realised that he was afraid to". (Ibid.) The representing particle to in the final clause here is used as a kind of replacement for the prepositional object performed in the sentence by the word-group making another phone call. Similarly in the replying sentence to the following one: "I'm a fool to tell you anything". And the answer to this sentence is: "You'd be a bigger fool not to". (J. Carre) Here the representing part not to in the replying sentence is used instead of the adverbial part of the first sentence to tell you anything. Representation may also be realised with the help of such words as not, one, do/did and even with the help of the syntactic formant '-s/-s', as in the following sentence: The other voice was raised now, it was a woman's. (Maugham) The -'s in the sentence represents/ substitutes the noun voice, i.e. a woman's voice.
4. Contamination (суміщення) is another internal process in
which two syntaxemes merge into one predicative unit as in the fol-
lowing sentence: The moon rose red. This means: The moon rose +
she was red. Or in Ukrainian: Наталка прибігла сердита, задихана.
(О. Гончар), i.e. Наталка прибігла + (Наталка) була сердита + (На-
талка) була задихана. Or: Шлях лежить великий. (О. Довженко),
i.e. шлях лежить + шлях великий.
Partly close to contamination is also the secondary predication construction with the English past participle that has practically an identical equivalent construction in Ukrainian. Cf. They found the door unlocked (that is: they found the door, it/which was unlocked). Вони застали двері, відімкненими: вони застали двері, вони/ які були відімкненими.
5. Compression represents a syntactic process which is closely con
nected with reduction and with the secondary predication complex as
illustrated above, but it exists only in English. This syntactic process is
most often observed in English with the nominative absolute particip-
ial constructions, which are usually transformed in speech. Cf. He
stood beside me in silence, his candle in his hand. (C. Doyle) The
nominative absolute participial construction in this sentence is a re-
duced transform from the construction his candle being or having been
in his hand. The Ukrainian transformed variants of this secondary
predicate/complex will be either a participial/diyepryslivnyk construc-
tion тримаючи свічку в руці, or a co-ordinate clause а свічка була в
руці, or simply зі свічкою в руці.
The mentioned above external and internal syntactic processes do not completely exhaust all possible ways of transformation taking place within English and Ukrainian sentences. And yet they graphically testify to the existence of isomorphic and allomorphic features that characterise respectively the syntactic systems of each contrasted language.